June 20

Ali az-Zahir (1005–1036) was the tenth Fatimid caliph of Egypt, ascending the throne in 1021 at the age of sixteen. His reign was characterized by the powerful influence of his vizier, Abu Muhammad al-Jarjara'i, who managed state affairs. Under his rule, the Fatimid Caliphate consolidated its control over North Africa and maintained diplomatic ties with neighboring powers. He was a patron of learning and the arts, supporting the flourishing of Al-Azhar University and commissioning architectural projects in Cairo. Despite internal challenges and external threats, his administration strengthened the caliphate's institutions. He died in 1036 and was succeeded by his son al-Mustansir Billah.

John of Lancaster (1389–1435) was the third son of King Henry IV of England and a key figure in the Hundred Years' War. He was created Duke of Bedford in 1419 and became the English regent in France after his brother King Henry V's death. As regent, he administered English territories in Normandy and led military campaigns to uphold English claims to the French throne. Bedford forged alliances with the Burgundian faction and played a central role in negotiating the 1420 Treaty of Troyes. He combined military leadership with diplomatic efforts to consolidate English rule, facing growing opposition from French forces. He died in Rouen on 14 September 1435, and his death marked a turning point in English fortunes in the conflict.

Gian Galeazzo Sforza (1469–1494) succeeded his father Galeazzo Maria Sforza as Duke of Milan at the age of eight. His reign was overshadowed by his ambitious uncle Ludovico 'Il Moro', who served as regent and effectively controlled the duchy. Under Il Moro's guidance, Milan became a center of Renaissance art and learning, patronizing figures like Leonardo da Vinci. Gian Galeazzo's role was largely ceremonial, though he retained titular authority and presence in court rituals. Despite his limited power, he maintained alliances with key Italian states to protect Milan's interests. He died under mysterious circumstances in 1494 at the age of 25, leading to Ludovico taking full ducal authority.

Sigismund III Vasa (1566–1632) was the son of John III of Sweden and Catherine Jagiellon, who became King of Poland in 1587 and King of Sweden in 1592. His dual monarchy sparked conflicts that led to his deposition in Sweden and consolidation of power in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He supported the Counter-Reformation, working to strengthen Catholic influence within his realms. His reign saw wars against Sweden, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, significantly shaping the political landscape of Eastern Europe. He moved the Polish capital to Warsaw and commissioned ambitious building projects, including the Royal Castle. He continued to rule Poland until his death in 1632, leaving a legacy of political ambition and religious controversy.

Jacob De la Gardie (1583–1652) was a prominent Swedish military commander and statesman during the reigns of Charles IX and Gustavus Adolphus. He led the De la Gardie Campaign in Russia (1609–1610), securing key victories against Polish and Muscovite forces and brokering the Treaty of Stolbovo. As Lord High Constable, he held one of the highest offices in Sweden, overseeing the army and shaping national military policy. He introduced reforms that enhanced the organization and discipline of Swedish forces, contributing to their successes in European conflicts. De la Gardie also undertook diplomatic missions to reinforce Sweden’s alliances and status among Northern Powers. His strategic and administrative skills helped establish Sweden as a major military power before his death in 1652.

Charles Emmanuel II (1634–1675) succeeded his father Victor Amadeus I as Duke of Savoy in 1638, initially under the regency of his mother, Christine Marie of France. He assumed full ducal powers in 1663 and focused on modernizing the administration and strengthening the duchy's military defenses. Under his rule, Savoy improved infrastructure with new fortifications and road networks, enhancing trade and security. He was a patron of the arts and sciences, inviting scholars and artists to his court and supporting projects in Turin. Charles Emmanuel navigated complex alliances with France, Spain, and Italian states to maintain Savoy's autonomy. He died in 1675 and was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus II, who later became King of Sicily.

John George III (1647–1691) reigned as Elector of Saxony from 1680 until his death, overseeing a period of military modernization. He strengthened the Saxon army and reorganized its command structure, preparing the state for regional conflicts. Under his rule, Dresden's Baroque architecture flourished with significant building projects in the capital. He maintained alliances with the Holy Roman Emperor while balancing relationships with emerging European powers. John George promoted trade and infrastructure, improving roads and fortifications across his territories. His reign ended abruptly when he died of smallpox in 1691, succeeded by his son John George IV.

Born in 1737 into the powerful Tokugawa family, Ieharu succeeded his uncle to become shōgun in 1760. His tenure saw the Tenmei famine, political intrigue, and efforts to stabilize the shogunate’s finances. He attempted limited reforms to address corruption and economic decline, including currency adjustments. Under his rule, the shogunate maintained Japan’s isolationist sakoku policies. Despite challenges, he preserved centralized power and paved the way for subsequent leaders. Ieharu’s era marked a period of transition before the transformative events of the 19th century.

Born in 1763 to an Anglo-Irish family, Wolfe Tone studied law before embracing republican ideals inspired by the American and French Revolutions. In 1791, he helped found the Society of United Irishmen, advocating for Catholic-Protestant unity and Irish self-governance. Tone sought French military support and participated in the ill-fated 1798 uprising against British rule. Captured following a naval expedition, he chose suicide over execution in 1798. His writings and martyrdom inspired future generations of Irish nationalists, earning him a lasting legacy as the ‘father of Irish democracy.’

Born in 1771, Selkirk inherited his title at a young age and became passionate about alleviating the suffering of Scottish crofters displaced by the Highland Clearances. He secured land grants in British North America and founded the Red River Colony (in present-day Manitoba) in 1812. Despite facing conflicts with the North West Company and logistical hardships, his settlement efforts provided hope for thousands of emigrants. Selkirk also served as Lord Lieutenant of Kirkcudbright in Scotland, balancing his philanthropic ventures with political duties. He died in 1820, remembered as a pioneer of planned immigration and social reform.

Born in 1771, Boyen joined the Prussian army and distinguished himself in the Napoleonic Wars. As Minister of War under reformers Stein and Hardenberg, he helped overhaul the military system after Prussia’s defeat in 1806, advocating for merit-based promotions and universal conscription. He served again in government after the fall of Napoleon, guiding the reorganization of the army and strengthening defense policies. Boyen’s efforts contributed to the rise of Prussia as a major European power. He retired in 1833 and died in 1848, leaving a legacy of modernization that influenced future German militarization.

Born in 1778, Martignac entered politics after the French Revolution and rose through royalist ranks. Appointed Prime Minister in 1828, he pursued moderate reforms, seeking to balance ultraroyalist interests with growing liberal demands. He supported press freedoms and limited constitutional changes while maintaining monarchical authority. His tenure faced opposition from hardline royalists and reformists alike, leading to his dismissal in 1829. Martignac remained an influential figure during the July Monarchy and served as Foreign Minister under King Louis-Philippe. He died in 1832, remembered for his efforts to navigate France through a volatile post-revolutionary era.