July 31

Emperor Nijō was the 78th sovereign of Japan, ascending the throne in 1158 at a young age. He governed during a turbulent era marked by court intrigues and the rise of the samurai class. His reign saw increasing influence of military clans, shaping the future of Japanese governance. Despite limited political power, he patronized the imperial court's cultural traditions. He died prematurely in 1165, leaving behind a legacy as one of the last Heian emperors who held nominal authority.

Philip III, known as Philip the Good, ruled Burgundy for nearly five decades, transforming it into a prosperous duchy. He established the Order of the Golden Fleece, promoting chivalric ideals and strengthening ties with European nobility. Under his leadership, Burgundian courts became centers of art and learning, attracting prominent artists and poets. He skillfully balanced alliances between France and the Holy Roman Empire to maintain his duchy's autonomy. His reign laid the cultural and political foundations for the height of Burgundian power in the 15th century.

Augustus I succeeded his brother Maurice during a period of religious tension following the Schmalkaldic War. He firmly established Lutheranism as the state religion and reformed church governance in Saxony. His reign saw the foundation of schools and universities, promoting learning across his territories. Augustus encouraged the development of arts and architecture, commissioning significant building projects in Dresden. He carefully navigated the complex politics of the Holy Roman Empire to maintain the autonomy and prosperity of Saxony.

Maximilian II, a member of the Habsburg dynasty, ascended as Emperor amid religious divisions in Europe. He promoted a policy of moderate tolerance, attempting to bridge differences between Catholics and Protestants. A patron of learning, he endowed universities and welcomed scholars, fostering a vibrant intellectual environment. He commissioned extensive architectural and artistic projects in Vienna, contributing to the Renaissance cultural bloom. Although criticized for indecision in religious matters, his reign is remembered for relative peace and cultural achievements.

Philipp Wolfgang inherited the counties of Hanau and Lichtenberg at a young age during a period of rising religious conflicts. He maintained administrative reforms to strengthen local governance and support his subjects. During the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, he navigated shifting alliances to protect his lands from devastation. He fostered economic development by supporting trade and rebuilding war-torn communities. His efforts helped preserve the cultural and political stability of Hanau-Lichtenberg throughout his nearly four-decade rule.

Alessandro Algardi was a leading Baroque artist in Rome, celebrated for his refined and classical style. He served as court sculptor to Pope Innocent X and produced monumental works for St. Peter's Basilica. His notable sculptures include the high-relief 'The Death of St. Agnes' and the papal monument of Innocent X. Algardi's approach emphasized calm dignity over dramatic theatricality, distinguishing him from his contemporaries. His legacy influenced European sculpture through his pupils and the dissemination of his works across Italy.

Charles de France, the third son of the Grand Dauphin, was born into the heart of the French royal family. He was granted the title Duke of Berry and held hopes of significant court appointments. Known for his refined education and patronage of the arts, he frequented the salons of Paris. From a young age, he was groomed for a prominent role but died unexpectedly in 1714 at age 27. His death marked the loss of a vibrant member of the House of Bourbon and altered the line of succession.

Jean Denis Attiret joined the Jesuit China mission in the 1730s and became court painter to Emperor Qianlong. He introduced European perspective and oil painting methods to Chinese imperial workshops. Attiret's works include portraits of the emperor and decorative murals in the Forbidden City. He skillfully blended Western realism with traditional Chinese themes, influencing Qing dynasty art. His artistic exchange helped establish a unique Sino-European style during the 18th century.

Gabriel Cramer made significant contributions to algebra and the theory of curves in the 18th century. His 'Cramer's rule' provided a systematic method to solve systems of linear equations. He studied mathematics at the University of Geneva and later taught geometry and physics. Cramer published pioneering works on algebraic curves, including explanations of determinants. His research laid foundations for future developments in linear algebra and analytic geometry.

John Canton was an 18th-century natural philosopher and Fellow of the Royal Society. He conducted groundbreaking experiments demonstrating that water could be frozen by evaporation. Canton invented the pith ball electroscope, advancing the study of electrostatics. His precise measurements of magnetic properties and temperature contributed to the development of scientific instruments. He taught mathematics and natural philosophy, influencing the next generation of British scientists.

Noël François de Wailly was an 18th-century French lexicographer and author who significantly influenced the study of the French language. He published definitive dictionaries and grammar guides that standardized French orthography and usage. A respected academic, he dedicated his career to clarifying linguistic rules and educating future scholars. His works became essential references in French educational institutions of his time. Through meticulous scholarship, de Wailly laid the foundations of modern French lexicography.

Ignaz Anton von Indermauer was an Austrian nobleman and government official active in the late 1700s. He held key administrative roles within the Habsburg monarchy, overseeing regional governance and policy implementation. A member of the aristocracy, he balanced traditional noble responsibilities with emerging bureaucratic duties. His career reflected the complex interplay between noble privilege and state administration in pre-revolutionary Europe. Von Indermauer’s work contributed to the functioning of the Austrian government prior to the upheavals of the French Revolution.