44 BC
Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion.
Cleopatra VII declares her son Ptolemy XV Caesarion as co-ruler, reinforcing her dynastic legitimacy in ancient Egypt.
In 44 BC, after the death of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra VII elevated her young son Caesarion to the status of co-ruler to secure her line's claim to the throne. The move was both a political statement and a bid to strengthen ties with Rome through her son's paternity. Cleopatra aimed to stabilize Egypt amid the power struggles of the late Republic, leveraging her influence and Caesarion’s heritage. Their shared rule was one of the few examples of a female monarch endorsing a child as joint sovereign. This co-regency deepened Cleopatra’s authority but also intensified Roman rivalries. Ultimately, Caesarion’s fate became intertwined with the fall of his parents during Octavian’s rise to power.
44 BC
Pharaoh
Cleopatra VII
Egypt
Caesarion
44 BC
Cicero launches the first of his Philippicae (oratorical attacks) on Mark Antony. He will make 14 of them over the following months.
Cicero delivers the first of his fierce Philippicae orations, targeting Mark Antony as a threat to the Republic.
Inspired by the Greek orator Demosthenes, Cicero began his Philippicae in a bid to rally the Senate against Mark Antony’s growing power. The inaugural speech, delivered in the summer of 44 BC, painted Antony as a danger to Roman liberty after Julius Caesar’s assassination. Over the next months, Cicero would deliver fourteen such speeches, each combining sharp rhetoric with political maneuvering. His orations mixed praise for republican virtues with scathing invective, aiming to isolate Antony and defend the Senate’s authority. Though admired for their eloquence, the Philippicae ultimately failed to curb Antony’s influence. Instead, they set the stage for Cicero’s downfall when Antony later seized control of Rome.
Cicero
Philippicae
Mark Antony
31 BC
Final War of the Roman Republic: Battle of Actium: Off the western coast of Greece, forces of Octavian defeat troops under Mark Antony and Cleopatra.
Octavian’s fleet triumphs over Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, sealing the fate of the Roman Republic.
On September 2, 31 BC, the naval Battle of Actium unfolded off western Greece as Octavian’s commander Agrippa engaged the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The encounter was marked by tactical brilliance, with Octavian’s ships outmaneuvering the opposition and cutting off their retreat. Antony and Cleopatra managed to escape, leaving their fleet to surrender or be destroyed. This decisive victory ended the Final War of the Roman Republic, paving the way for Octavian to assume sole power. In 27 BC, he would be named Augustus, inaugurating the Roman Empire and ending centuries of republican governance. The battle also highlighted shifting allegiances and the emergence of imperial rule in the ancient world.
31 BC
Final War of the Roman Republic
Battle of Actium
Octavian
Mark Antony
Cleopatra
1192day.year
The Treaty of Jaffa is signed between Richard I of England and Saladin, leading to the end of the Third Crusade.
Richard I and Saladin agree to the Treaty of Jaffa, concluding the Third Crusade with a lasting truce.
After months of warfare and siege, King Richard I of England and Sultan Saladin brokered the Treaty of Jaffa on September 2, 1192. The accord granted Christian pilgrims safe passage to holy sites in Jerusalem, while the city itself remained under Muslim control. Both leaders displayed mutual respect and chivalry, reflecting the complex relations between Crusaders and Muslim forces. The treaty brought an uneasy peace to the Levant, effectively ending the Third Crusade without a decisive capture of Jerusalem. Its diplomatic success shaped future interactions between East and West and demonstrated early medieval norms of warfare and negotiation. Pilgrimages resumed under agreed terms, influencing religious and cultural exchanges in the region.
1192
Treaty of Jaffa
Richard I of England
Saladin
Third Crusade
1561day.year
Entry of Mary, Queen of Scots into Edinburgh, a spectacular civic celebration for the Queen of Scotland, marred by religious controversy.
Mary, Queen of Scots is welcomed into Edinburgh with grand ceremonies that reflect both loyalty and religious tension.
Returning from her childhood in France, Mary Stuart made her formal entry into Edinburgh on September 2, 1561, amid elaborate pageantry and decorations. Citizens lined the streets to honor their new queen with banners, music, and speeches. However, the predominantly Protestant city watched warily as the Catholic monarch proceeded to Mass, igniting debate over her faith. The event encapsulated the fragile balance between Mary’s dynastic authority and the rising tide of the Scottish Reformation. Her entry foreshadowed the religious conflicts that would shape her reign and eventually lead to her downfall. The procession left a lasting impression on Edinburgh’s civic identity and on Mary’s complex legacy.
1561
Entry of Mary, Queen of Scots into Edinburgh
1601day.year
4th Spanish Armada makes landfall in Ireland at Kinsale.
Spanish forces land at Kinsale, Ireland, in an attempt to support Irish rebels against English rule.
On September 2, 1601, a Spanish fleet known as the Fourth Armada reached Kinsale harbor, aiming to assist the Gaelic lords of Ireland in their rebellion against Elizabethan rule. The expedition marked Spain’s last major effort to challenge English power following the famous Armada of 1588. Spanish soldiers and supplies bolstered the forces of Hugh O’Neill and Hugh O’Donnell, who had sought external aid for their uprising. Despite initial success in landing, the terrain and English defenses led to a protracted siege at Kinsale. The eventual English victory in January 1602 crushed hopes for Irish independence and cemented England’s dominance over Ireland. The episode highlighted the international dimensions of the conflict and the waning reach of Spanish influence.
1601
4th Spanish Armada
Kinsale
1649day.year
The Italian city of Castro is completely destroyed by the forces of Pope Innocent X, ending the Wars of Castro.
Pope Innocent X’s army razes the city of Castro, bringing the Wars of Castro to a violent close.
As tensions escalated between the papacy and the Farnese dukes of Parma, Pope Innocent X ordered an assault on the fortified city of Castro in 1649. After a brief siege, papal forces breached the walls and systematically destroyed the town’s buildings, churches, and defenses. The devastation served both as retribution for perceived insults and as a warning to other regional powers. With Castro in ruins, the long-running Wars of Castro came to an abrupt and brutal end. The destruction erased centuries of urban history and shifted territorial control back to the Papal States. This event underscored the papacy’s capacity for temporal as well as spiritual authority during the Baroque era.
1649
Castro
Pope Innocent X
Wars of Castro
1666day.year
The Great Fire of London breaks out and burns for three days, destroying 10,000 buildings, including Old St Paul's Cathedral.
A massive blaze engulfs London for three days, gutting thousands of buildings and reshaping the cityscape.
Beginning in a bakery on Pudding Lane on September 2, 1666, the Great Fire of London quickly spread through tightly packed wooden homes and shops. Fierce winds drove the flames eastward, overwhelming firefighting efforts and consuming major landmarks such as Old St Paul’s Cathedral. By the time the fire subsided, it had destroyed over 10,000 structures and left tens of thousands homeless. The catastrophe prompted the creation of new building codes, wider streets, and the reconstruction plan by Sir Christopher Wren. Though relatively few lives were recorded lost, the fire’s impact on urban planning and architecture was profound. London emerged from the ashes with a transformed skyline and legacy of resilience.
1666
Great Fire of London
Old St Paul's Cathedral
1752day.year
Great Britain, along with its overseas possessions, adopts the Gregorian calendar.
Great Britain and its colonies switch to the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days to realign with Europe.
On September 2, 1752, Great Britain and its overseas territories replaced the Julian calendar with the more accurate Gregorian system. To correct the drift of dates, the government decreed that the next day would be September 14, eliminating eleven days from the month. The reform, passed by Parliament, faced public confusion and occasional unrest as people believed their lives were being shortened. Adoption of the Gregorian calendar harmonized British dates with continental Europe, improving trade, communication, and scientific coordination. Over time, the change facilitated more consistent record-keeping and international relations. The calendar shift stands as a landmark in the history of timekeeping.
1752
Great Britain
overseas possessions
adopts the Gregorian calendar
1789day.year
The United States Department of the Treasury is founded.
The United States establishes its Department of the Treasury, setting up federal financial administration.
Following the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, Congress passed the Department of the Treasury Act on September 2, 1789. The new department was tasked with collecting revenue, managing national debt, and overseeing coinage and currency. President George Washington appointed Alexander Hamilton as the first Secretary of the Treasury, who laid the foundations of American fiscal policy. Under Hamilton’s leadership, the Treasury introduced systems for customs duties, government bonds, and the Bank of the United States. The department played a central role in stabilizing the young nation’s economy and credit. Its creation marked a critical step in establishing the federal government’s authority and capacity to fund national initiatives.
1789
United States Department of the Treasury
1792day.year
During what became known as the September Massacres of the French Revolution, rampaging mobs slaughter three Roman Catholic bishops, more than two hundred priests, and prisoners believed to be royalist sympathizers.
During the September Massacres, Paris mobs brutally executed clergy and suspected royalists in a shocking outbreak of revolutionary violence.
On September 2, 1792, as the French Revolution reached a fever pitch, Parisian revolutionaries stormed prisons and slaughtered clergy and political prisoners.
Over the following days, more than 300 members of the clergy and alleged counter-revolutionaries were killed without trial.
This wave of violence was fueled by fears of foreign invasion and royalist uprisings.
News of the atrocities reverberated across Europe, tarnishing the Revolution’s image.
The September Massacres remain a stark illustration of how ideological fervor can descend into brutal excess.
Historians continue to debate its impact on the course of revolutionary justice and human rights.
1792
September Massacres
1806day.year
A massive landslide destroys the town of Goldau, Switzerland, killing 457.
A devastating landslide in Goldau, Switzerland, obliterated the town and claimed hundreds of lives.
On September 2, 1806, a massive slope of rock and earth collapsed above the Swiss village of Goldau.
The sudden landslide buried homes, farms, and the railway station under tons of debris.
Rescue efforts were hampered by unstable terrain and falling boulders.
Ultimately, 457 people lost their lives, making it one of Switzerland’s deadliest natural disasters.
The catastrophe prompted early studies in geology and mountain hazards.
In the aftermath, Goldau was rebuilt with reinforced slopes and hazard monitoring systems.
1806
Goldau