490 BC
Battle of Marathon: The conventionally accepted date for the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians and their Plataean allies defeat the first Persian invasion force of Greece.
The Athenians and Plataeans defeat the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Marathon, marking a pivotal moment in Greek history.
In 490 BC, during the first Persian invasion of Greece, Athenian hoplites joined by Plataeans confronted the Persian army on the plains of Marathon.
The heavily outnumbered Greeks employed superior tactics and terrain advantage to rout the enemy.
This victory boosted Greek morale and preserved the independence of the city-states.
Legend holds that a messenger ran from Marathon to Athens to announce the news, inspiring the modern marathon race.
The outcome shaped the future course of Western civilization by halting Persian expansion into Europe.
490 BC
Battle of Marathon
Athenians
Plataean
first Persian invasion force of Greece
372day.year
Sixteen Kingdoms: Sima Yao, age 10, succeeds his father Emperor Jianwen as Emperor Xiaowu of the Eastern Jin dynasty.
At the age of ten, Sima Yao ascends the throne as Emperor Xiaowu of the Eastern Jin dynasty amid political upheaval.
In 372 AD, following the death of Emperor Jianwen, his young son Sima Yao inherited the imperial title as Emperor Xiaowu at just ten years old.
Despite his youth, his reign would be guided by powerful ministers and regents who shaped court politics.
The Eastern Jin dynasty faced internal strife and external threats, and the new emperor’s rule marked a period of significant challenges.
Emperor Xiaowu’s ascension demonstrates the dynastic complexities of the Sixteen Kingdoms period in Chinese history.
The succession underlines the fragility of imperial power during times of political fragmentation.
372
Sixteen Kingdoms
Emperor Jianwen
Emperor Xiaowu
Eastern Jin dynasty
1213day.year
Albigensian Crusade: Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, defeats Peter II of Aragon at the Battle of Muret.
Simon de Montfort secures a decisive victory over Peter II of Aragon at the Battle of Muret during the Albigensian Crusade.
In 1213, amid the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathar heresy, Simon de Montfort led crusader forces against a coalition of Occitan lords and King Peter II of Aragon.
At Muret, de Montfort’s tactical expertise overcame the larger Iberian army, killing Peter II and shattering regional resistance.
This triumph weakened southern French nobility and bolstered the crusade’s momentum in suppressing the Cathars.
The battle reshaped the political landscape of Languedoc, strengthening northern French influence.
Muret stands as a key turning point in the expansion of French royal authority over Occitania.
1213
Albigensian Crusade
Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester
Peter II of Aragon
Battle of Muret
1229day.year
Battle of Portopí: The Aragonese army under the command of James I of Aragon disembarks at Santa Ponça, Mallorca, with the purpose of conquering the island.
James I of Aragon lands his forces on Mallorca, initiating the Battle of Portopí in the campaign to conquer the island.
In 1229, King James I of Aragon launched a military expedition to seize the Balearic island of Mallorca from Muslim rule.
His army landed at Santa Ponça and engaged Granadan defenders in the rugged terrain of Portopí.
The initial clashes proved costly but ultimately favored the well-organized Aragonese forces.
This operation marked the beginning of a prolonged conquest that would secure Aragonese dominance in the western Mediterranean.
The Battle of Portopí showcased medieval amphibious warfare and the strategic importance of island strongholds.
1229
Battle of Portopí
James I of Aragon
Santa Ponça
Mallorca
1297day.year
The Treaty of Alcañices, mediated by the pope, between the king Denis of Portugal and king Ferdinand IV of Castile defines the border between the two countries and establishes an alliance of friendship.
Portugal and Castile formalize their border and friendship through the Treaty of Alcañices, mediated by the pope.
In 1297, King Denis of Portugal and King Ferdinand IV of Castile agreed to the Treaty of Alcañices under papal mediation.
The treaty clearly defined the frontier between the two kingdoms, many of whose borders remain unchanged today.
It established a defensive alliance and mutual assistance pact, fostering decades of peace on the Iberian Peninsula.
This diplomatic achievement strengthened both monarchies and facilitated economic and cultural exchange.
The Treaty of Alcañices exemplifies medieval European diplomacy and the role of the papacy in conflict resolution.
1297
Treaty of Alcañices
Denis of Portugal
Ferdinand IV of Castile
1309day.year
The First siege of Gibraltar takes place in the context of the Spanish Reconquista pitting the forces of the Kingdom of Castile against the Emirate of Granada resulting in a Castilian victory.
Castilian forces lay siege to Gibraltar, achieving victory over the Emirate of Granada in the early phase of the Reconquista.
In 1309, the Kingdom of Castile initiated the First Siege of Gibraltar against the Muslim stronghold held by the Emirate of Granada.
Under the leadership of King Ferdinand IV, Castilian troops encircled the fortress, cutting off supplies and reinforcements.
After a few weeks of blockade and assaults, the defenders capitulated, surrendering Gibraltar to Christian rule.
This conquest provided Castile with a key naval base controlling access to the Mediterranean.
The siege highlights the strategic and symbolic importance of Gibraltar in the protracted Reconquista campaigns.
1309
First siege of Gibraltar
Reconquista
Kingdom of Castile
Emirate of Granada
1609day.year
Henry Hudson begins his exploration of the Hudson River while aboard the Halve Maen.
Explorer Henry Hudson sails the Halve Maen and begins charting the river that will bear his name.
In 1609, English navigator Henry Hudson set out aboard the Dutch vessel Halve Maen on a voyage to discover a northwest passage to Asia.
During his journey, Hudson explored the river estuary off present-day New York, charting its course further inland.
His detailed maps of the waterway opened the region for future Dutch colonization and trade.
The voyage helped establish the basis for New Netherland and shaped European understanding of North American geography.
Although Hudson never found a passage to the Pacific, his river exploration remains a milestone in maritime history.
1609
Henry Hudson
Hudson River
Halve Maen
1634day.year
A gunpowder factory explodes in Valletta, Malta, killing 22 people and damaging several buildings.
A devastating explosion at a Valletta gunpowder factory kills 22 people and damages multiple buildings.
In 1634, a storage magazine at a gunpowder factory in Valletta, Malta, detonated in a catastrophic blast.
The explosion claimed the lives of 22 workers and bystanders, leaving a significant destruction of nearby structures.
Debris from the blast scattered across the city, highlighting the risks of early modern munitions manufacturing.
Authorities responded by relocating volatile materials outside urban centers to reduce future hazards.
The incident underscored the importance of safety measures in military production facilities.
1634
explodes
Valletta
1683day.year
Austro-Ottoman War: Battle of Vienna: Several European armies join forces to defeat the Ottoman Empire.
European armies unite to lift the Ottoman siege of Vienna, turning the tide of the Austro-Ottoman War.
In 1683, a coalition of Polish, Austrian, and German forces assembled to relieve the besieged city of Vienna under Ottoman attack.
Under the leadership of King John III Sobieski of Poland, the relief army launched a decisive cavalry charge.
The intervention broke the Ottoman encirclement, marking the high-water mark of Ottoman expansion in Europe.
Vienna’s survival preserved Habsburg authority and initiated a long-term military counteroffensive against the Ottomans.
The battle’s outcome reshaped the balance of power in Central Europe for centuries.
1683
Austro-Ottoman War
Battle of Vienna
Ottoman Empire
1814day.year
Battle of North Point: an American detachment halts the British land advance to Baltimore in the War of 1812.
In the War of 1812, American forces halt a British advance toward Baltimore at the Battle of North Point.
In 1814, during the later stages of the War of 1812, American militia and regulars engaged retreating British troops at North Point, Maryland.
Under General John Stricker, the defenders executed a fighting withdrawal that delayed the British advance on Baltimore.
This action allowed the city’s defenses, including Fort McHenry, to prepare for the looming attack.
The British engagement at North Point contributed to the failure of the Chesapeake campaign.
The defense of Baltimore bolstered American morale and inspired Francis Scott Key to write a poem that became the national anthem.
1814
Battle of North Point
Baltimore
War of 1812
1847day.year
Mexican–American War: the Battle of Chapultepec begins.
The Battle of Chapultepec, a key engagement during the Mexican–American War, began on this day in 1847.
The Battle of Chapultepec was fought from September 12 to 13, 1847, on the heights surrounding Mexico City.
American forces led by General Winfield Scott attacked the historic Chapultepec Castle, a strategic fortress defended by Mexican troops.
The defenders included the Niños Héroes, six young cadets who became national heroes after bravely holding their position.
Its fall opened the path for U.S. troops to capture Mexico City and brought the war closer to its end.
The battle became a symbol of courage and triggered important discussions about military tactics and national honor.
1847
Mexican–American War
Battle of Chapultepec
1848day.year
A new constitution marks the establishment of Switzerland as a federal state.
On this day in 1848, Switzerland adopted a federal constitution, establishing modern Swiss democracy.
The Federal Constitution of Switzerland was adopted on September 12, 1848, reorganizing the nation into a federal state of 25 cantons.
It replaced a loose confederation with a centralized government while preserving cantonal autonomy.
The constitution established a bicameral legislature, separation of powers, and introduced elements of direct democracy.
These reforms laid the foundation for Swiss neutrality and political stability in Europe.
Many of its core principles remain in place, guiding Switzerland's governance to this day.
1848
Switzerland as a federal state