October 21

Born Zhu Yuanzhang, he rose from peasant origins to overthrow the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and establish the Ming dynasty. Known for centralizing the government, legal reforms, and consolidating imperial power. He implemented land reforms and strengthened agriculture across China. His reign saw the codification of laws and the establishment of the civil service examination system. Despite his achievements, his later years were marked by paranoia and purges of perceived enemies. He died in 1398, leaving a lasting legacy on Chinese governance and culture.

Born into the influential Sforza dynasty, he served as a condottiero commanding mercenary forces in various Italian conflicts. He inherited the lordship of Pesaro and defended his domain against rival states. Known for his adept military leadership and diplomatic skill in navigating the complex Italian political landscape. His tenure included both military campaigns and the patronage of arts and architecture in Pesaro. He married Maria Malatesta, forging alliances with other noble families. He died in 1473, remembered as a notable figure of Renaissance Italy's condottieri culture.

Second son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, he was made Earl of Warwick and later created Duke of Clarence. He initially supported his brother Edward IV in the Wars of the Roses, but shifting allegiances led to multiple rebellions and conspiracies. He married Isabel Neville, heir to the powerful Neville earldom, strengthening his political position. Accused of treason in 1477, he was convicted and executed in 1478. His tumultuous career exemplified the instability of England's civil wars. He is remembered for both ambition and eventual downfall within the Plantagenet dynasty.

Born Louis de Lorraine, he was appointed Cardinal at age 23, reflecting his family's prestige. As a leading Catholic figure, he supported the Crown's efforts against the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. He served as Archbishop of Sens and adviser to Kings Henry II, Francis II, and Charles IX. He undertook diplomatic missions to Rome, strengthening Franco-papal relations. His counsel shaped key religious policies and royal alliances. He died in 1578, leaving a legacy of ecclesiastical and political leadership within one of France's most formidable noble houses.

Born into the House of Ascania, he inherited multiple Anhalt principalities upon his father's death. In 1570 he consolidated the fragmented Anhalt lands into a single principality, strengthening central authority. A proponent of the Protestant Reformation, he invited Lutheran theologians and restructured church institutions. He implemented legal and fiscal reforms to improve governance and economic stability. He was a patron of arts and education, supporting the founding of schools and printing presses. He died in 1586, remembered for the unification and modernization of Anhalt.

Born Domenico Zampieri in Bologna, he studied under the Carracci and became a leading figure of the Baroque era. His work is noted for its idealized figures, harmonious compositions, and emotive clarity. Major commissions included frescoes in the Villa Farnese at Caprarola and paintings in Roman churches. He drew inspiration from the art of Raphael and Annibale Carracci. Patronized by the papal court and prominent Roman families, he influenced subsequent generations of painters. He died in 1641, leaving a legacy of refined Baroque artistry.

Born in Dunkirk to a seafaring family, he began privateering at a young age and quickly gained renown. Commissioned as a naval officer, his daring raids and victories on the North Sea made him a national hero. He captured or sank numerous enemy ships, earning promotion to chef d'escadre under Louis XIV. Ennobled for his service, he defended French coasts and protected maritime trade routes. Known for his speed and aggressive tactics, he became a symbol of French naval prowess. He died in 1702, celebrated in France's maritime lore.

Born into the French aristocracy, he became a prominent historian and political thinker during the early Enlightenment. His major work 'Histoire de l'Ancien Gouvernement' argued for the ancient constitution and the primacy of noble rights. He engaged in intellectual salons and corresponded with leading figures like Fontenelle and Leibniz. His writings influenced debates on governance, inspiring later discussions on monarchy and aristocracy. His defense of traditional nobility shaped counter-revolutionary thought in France. He died in 1722, remembered for his contributions to political theory and historiography.

Born Prince Asahito, he ascended the Chrysanthemum Throne as the 113th emperor in 1687. His reign coincided with the governance of the Tokugawa shogunate, making him largely a ceremonial figurehead. He upheld court traditions, patronized poetry and the arts, and maintained imperial rituals in Kyoto. Married to Imperial Princess Sadako, he fathered a son who succeeded him as Emperor Nakamikado. He abdicated in 1709 due to illness and died the following year. He is remembered for his cultural patronage during a period of internal peace in Japan.

Born into the renowned Bernoulli family, he studied law and mathematics at the University of Basel. He contributed to the development of early calculus, infinite series, and the geometry of curves. His papers on probability theory influenced the mathematical study of chance and risk. He corresponded with contemporaries such as Euler and Leibniz, exchanging key ideas in analysis. Appointed professor at the University of Groningen, he lectured on mathematics and law. He died in 1759, leaving a legacy as a major figure in the Bernoulli dynasty of mathematicians.

Born in Scotland in 1712, James Steuart became one of the earliest theorists of political economy. He published his seminal work, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, in 1767. In this treatise, he analyzed the role of state intervention and mercantilist policies in regulating commerce. His ideas combined classical and mercantilist thought, differing from the laissez-faire approach that followed. Although overshadowed by contemporaries like Adam Smith, his work laid foundational concepts for modern economics. Rediscovered by later scholars, Steuart is now recognized as a pioneering figure in the development of political economy.

Born in 1725 to a military family, Franz Moritz von Lacy rose through the ranks of the Habsburg army thanks to his strategic acumen. He served as a close adviser to Empress Maria Theresa and later Emperor Joseph II, shaping military policy. Lacy played key roles in the Seven Years' War and the War of the Bavarian Succession, demonstrating both leadership and organizational skill. He implemented comprehensive reforms in training, supply chains, and command structures that modernized the Austrian forces. Recognized for his administrative talents, he helped transform the army into a more efficient fighting force. After retiring in 1790, he continued to influence military thought until his death in 1801.