October 21

Born into the renowned Bernoulli family, he studied law and mathematics at the University of Basel. He contributed to the development of early calculus, infinite series, and the geometry of curves. His papers on probability theory influenced the mathematical study of chance and risk. He corresponded with contemporaries such as Euler and Leibniz, exchanging key ideas in analysis. Appointed professor at the University of Groningen, he lectured on mathematics and law. He died in 1759, leaving a legacy as a major figure in the Bernoulli dynasty of mathematicians.

Born in Scotland in 1712, James Steuart became one of the earliest theorists of political economy. He published his seminal work, An Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy, in 1767. In this treatise, he analyzed the role of state intervention and mercantilist policies in regulating commerce. His ideas combined classical and mercantilist thought, differing from the laissez-faire approach that followed. Although overshadowed by contemporaries like Adam Smith, his work laid foundational concepts for modern economics. Rediscovered by later scholars, Steuart is now recognized as a pioneering figure in the development of political economy.

Born in Stockholm in 1833 into a family of engineers, Alfred Nobel held 355 patents over his lifetime. In 1867 he invented dynamite, transforming construction and mining industries worldwide. A successful entrepreneur, he owned manufacturing plants across Europe and the Americas. Haunted by the destructive uses of his creations, he dedicated his fortune to rewarding achievements in science, literature, and peace. Through his will, he founded the Nobel Prizes, which remain the world’s most esteemed honors in multiple fields.

In 1944, Oswald Avery led experiments demonstrating that DNA from bacteria could transform other cells. His work overturned the prevailing belief that proteins were the genetic material. The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment laid the foundation for modern molecular genetics. He spent much of his career studying pneumococcal bacteria and immune responses. Avery’s discoveries are celebrated as a pivotal breakthrough in understanding heredity.

Born in Cyprus in 1908, Niyazi Berkes studied sociology and political science at the University of London. He became a lecturer at Ankara University, where he examined the social and political transformation of Turkey. His seminal work, 'The Development of Secularism in Turkey,' remains a foundational text in Middle Eastern studies. Later, he taught at universities in the UK, influencing generations of scholars. Berkes's research offered deep insights into the challenges of modernization and cultural change.

Martin Gardner (1914-2010) was an influential American writer, mathematician, and skeptic who popularized recreational mathematics and puzzles. His "Mathematical Games" column in Scientific American ran for 25 years and inspired countless enthusiasts to explore logic, probability, and geometry. Gardner authored over 70 books on topics ranging from magic and philosophy to debunking pseudoscience. He played a key role in the modern skeptical movement, examining paranormal and fringe theories with rigorous analysis. Gardner's clear exposition and engaging style made complex subjects accessible to a broad audience. He received multiple awards for science writing and left a profound impact on mathematics education.

Milton Himmelfarb (1918-2006) was an American sociologist whose research focused on Jewish-American life, philanthropy, and the dynamics of minority communities. He served as executive vice president of the American Jewish Committee, influencing policy on social welfare and civil rights. Himmelfarb authored several books and articles analyzing community structures, charitable giving, and urban development. He held teaching positions at institutions including City College of New York. His balanced approach combined rigorous statistical analysis with attention to cultural context. Himmelfarb's work helped shape public understanding of Jewish identity and informed broader debates on social policy.

Born in Leiden in 1921, van Houten-Groeneveld studied astronomy at Leiden University and earned her doctorate in 1947. She joined the Palomar–Leiden survey team, collaborating with Tom Gehrels and Cornelis Johannes van Houten to search for minor planets. Using photographic plates from the Palomar Observatory, the team identified over 4,000 asteroids, a groundbreaking achievement in asteroid research. Van Houten-Groeneveld's meticulous measurements advanced the field of astrometry. She published numerous scientific papers and mentored aspiring astronomers throughout her career. She remained active in research and education until her death in 2015, leaving a lasting legacy in planetary science.

Eudóxia Maria Froehlich (1928-2015) was a pioneering Brazilian zoologist specializing in amphibians. She described several new species and contributed to the understanding of neotropical biodiversity. Froehlich's research at the Museu de Zoologia in São Paulo advanced amphibian classification. Her dedication to fieldwork helped document habitats at risk from environmental change. She trained countless students and promoted conservation initiatives across Brazil. Her scientific legacy remains influential in herpetology and wildlife preservation.

Hank Nelson was an Australian historian and academic renowned for his pioneering research on the history of the Pacific region. He specialized in the colonial and wartime history of Papua New Guinea and its people. Nelson held professorships at the University of Papua New Guinea and the Australian National University. He authored numerous books and articles that reshaped the field of Pacific historiography. His extensive fieldwork and advocacy gave voice to Pacific Islander perspectives. He mentored generations of scholars and contributed to international historical discourse. Nelson's work remains influential in contemporary studies of Oceanic history.

Christopher A. Sims is a professor at Princeton University known for pioneering methods that analyze the dynamic relationships among macroeconomic variables. His research on vector autoregression (VAR) models transformed empirical macroeconomics by allowing economists to quantify the effects of monetary and fiscal policy shocks. Awarded the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 2011 alongside Thomas Sargent, Sims's work has had a lasting impact on both academic research and central bank policy analysis. He has authored numerous influential papers and continues to shape modern econometric techniques.

Shaye J. D. Cohen is an American historian and professor specializing in Jewish history and religion. He has held academic positions at universities such as Harvard and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Cohen's research covers Hellenistic Judaism, early Christianity, and the historical development of Jewish identity. His publications include seminal works like 'From the Maccabees to the Mishnah' and 'The Beginnings of Jewishness.' He has received fellowships from prestigious institutions and is a sought-after speaker at international conferences. Cohen's scholarship has significantly influenced the study of ancient religions and interfaith relations.