December 31

Events

406day.year

Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gaul.

In 406 AD, the Vandals, Alans, and Suebians crossed the frozen Rhine into Roman Gaul, launching a major invasion.
In December 406 AD, a coalition of Vandals, Alans, and Suebians forded the Rhine River near what is now Cologne, taking advantage of winter conditions. This mass migration marked one of the largest barbarian incursions into Roman Gaul and exposed the weakening defenses of the Western Roman Empire. The invaders pillaged towns and agricultural estates, causing widespread disruption and displacement among the Gallo-Roman population. Roman military forces, already stretched thin along multiple frontiers, failed to mount an effective counterattack. This crossing is often cited as a pivotal event in the decline of Roman authority in Western Europe.
406 Vandals Alans Suebians cross the Rhine Gaul
535day.year

Byzantine general Belisarius completes the conquest of Sicily, defeating the Gothic garrison of Palermo (Panormos), and ending his consulship for the year.

By 535 AD, Byzantine general Belisarius captured Palermo, completing the conquest of Sicily for the Eastern Roman Empire.
In 535 AD, Emperor Justinian I dispatched General Belisarius to reclaim Sicily from the Ostrogoths. After a swift campaign, Belisarius laid siege to Palermo, leading to the Gothic garrison’s surrender. The fall of Palermo secured Byzantine control over the island and served as a turning point in the Gothic War. Belisarius ended his consulship that year in recognition of his military success and returned to Constantinople. This conquest reinforced Byzantine influence in the western Mediterranean and showcased Belisarius’s tactical prowess.
535 Byzantine Belisarius Sicily Gothic Palermo consulship
870day.year

Battle of Englefield: The Vikings clash with ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire. The invaders are driven back to Reading (East Anglia); many Danes are killed.

Battle of Englefield in 870 saw Anglo-Saxon forces under Æthelwulf repel Viking raiders near Reading, delivering a significant early victory.
Amid escalating Viking raids across Wessex in 870, ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire led local militia to intercept the invaders at Englefield. The Anglo-Saxons achieved a decisive victory, driving the Vikings back toward Reading and inflicting heavy casualties. This encounter boosted morale among the Saxons during a period of relentless Norse incursions. Contemporary sources record the battle as an early success that temporarily stemmed the Viking advance into East Anglia. Although subsequent engagements followed, Englefield remains notable as one of the first recorded Saxon triumphs against the Norsemen.
870 Battle of Englefield Vikings ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire Reading East Anglia Danes
1105day.year

Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV is forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Henry V, in Ingelheim.

In 1105, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son Henry V at Ingelheim, ending his turbulent reign.
Following years of conflict with the papacy and German princes over the Investiture Controversy, Henry IV faced mounting opposition. At Ingelheim on December 31, 1105, he was forced by rebellious nobles to renounce the throne in favor of his son, Henry V. This abdication marked the culmination of civil strife that had weakened imperial authority within the Holy Roman Empire. Henry IV spent his final years in relative obscurity and died less than a year later, while Henry V assumed full power. The transfer of power at Ingelheim exemplified the era’s intense struggles between secular and ecclesiastical forces.
1105 Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV Henry V Ingelheim
1225day.year

The Lý dynasty of Vietnam ends after 216 years by the enthronement of the boy emperor Trần Thái Tông, husband of the last Lý monarch, Lý Chiêu Hoàng, starting the Trần dynasty.

In 1225, Vietnam’s Lý dynasty ended as the young Trần Thái Tông ascended the throne, inaugurating the Trần dynasty.
After 216 years of Lý rule, the imperial throne passed through marriage when Empress Lý Chiêu Hoàng ceded her position to her husband, Trần Thái Tông. At the age of eight, Trần Thái Tông became emperor on December 31, 1225, with the influential Trần clan solidifying their power. This peaceful transition marked the end of the Lý dynasty and the beginning of the Trần era, known for political stability and cultural growth. Under the Trần, Vietnam would later repel Mongol invasions and witness a renaissance in literature, art, and governance. The 1225 enthronement thus set the stage for one of Vietnam’s most celebrated dynasties.
1225 Lý dynasty Trần Thái Tông Lý Chiêu Hoàng Trần dynasty
1229day.year

James I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, enters Medina Mayurqa (now known as Palma de Mallorca, Spain), thus consummating the Christian reconquest of the island of Mallorca.

In 1229, King James I of Aragon captured Palma de Mallorca, completing the Christian reconquest of the Balearic island.
Part of the wider Reconquista, James I launched an expedition to seize the strategic island of Majorca from Muslim rule. On December 31, 1229, his forces entered Medina Mayurqa (modern Palma de Mallorca) after a protracted siege. The capitulation of the Muslim inhabitants established Aragonese sovereignty over the island. This conquest enhanced Aragon’s maritime power in the western Mediterranean and opened new trade opportunities. Majorca’s incorporation into the Crown of Aragon had long-lasting cultural and political ramifications for the region.
1229 James I the Conqueror King of Aragon Palma de Mallorca Christian reconquest Mallorca
1501day.year

The First Battle of Cannanore commences, seeing the first use of the naval line of battle.

The First Battle of Cannanore in 1501 introduced the naval line of battle tactic in combat at sea.
Engaged off the coast of Cannanore (present-day Kannur, India), Portuguese ships confronted local naval forces. This battle marked the first recorded use of the naval line of battle, where vessels formed a linear formation to concentrate broadsides. The innovation improved firing efficiency and command control during engagements. The Portuguese victory cemented their maritime dominance in the Indian Ocean and influenced naval tactics for centuries. Historians regard Cannanore 1501 as a milestone in the evolution of naval warfare.
1501 First Battle of Cannanore line of battle
1600day.year

The British East India Company is chartered.

On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a royal charter establishing the British East India Company.
Formerly a group of merchants, the Company received monopoly rights to trade with the East Indies and Asia. Chartered by royal decree, it became a powerful agent of English commerce and imperial expansion. Over the next century, the Company built trading posts, negotiated treaties, and amassed private armies in India. Its operations laid the foundation for British colonial rule and transformed global trade networks. The East India Company’s influence endured until its dissolution in 1874.
1600 East India Company
1660day.year

James, Duke of York is named Duke of Normandy by Louis XIV of France.

In 1660, King Louis XIV of France bestowed the title Duke of Normandy upon James, Duke of York.
Following the English Restoration, diplomatic relations between England and France were symbolized through noble titles. On December 31, 1660, Louis XIV named James, the future James II of England, Duke of Normandy. The honor underscored the Franco-English alliance and James’s elevated status as heir to the English throne. Although Normandy was long under French control, the title carried significant prestige at the French court. James would later ascend to the English crown and face his own political and religious controversies.
1660 James, Duke of York Duke of Normandy Louis XIV of France
1670day.year

The expedition of John Narborough leaves Corral Bay, having surveyed the coast and lost four hostages to the Spanish.

In 1670, English naval expedition leader John Narborough departed Corral Bay on a Pacific survey mission, losing four hostages to Spanish forces.
Commissioned by the Royal Navy, Narborough’s voyage aimed to chart the southern Pacific coast of South America. Departing Corral Bay in present-day Chile, the expedition collected valuable geographical and navigational data. Spanish authorities, wary of foreign intrusion into their South American territories, seized four local hostages. Despite this setback, Narborough’s surveys contributed to European understanding of the Patagonian fjords and archipelagos. The 1670 mission influenced later scientific and exploratory voyages in the Pacific region.
1670 expedition of John Narborough Corral Bay
1687day.year

The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.

French Protestants known as Huguenots embark on their first voyage from France to the Cape of Good Hope, seeking refuge and new beginnings in Africa.
In 1687, the first group of Huguenots, a community of French Protestants facing severe persecution, set sail from La Rochelle for the distant shores of the Cape Colony. The months-long voyage across the Atlantic and Indian oceans tested the settlers with storms, disease, and uncertainty. Their aim was to establish a place to practice their faith freely under Dutch colonial protection. Upon arrival, they introduced grape cultivation, artisanal crafts, and new agricultural techniques to the region. Despite challenges, the Huguenot diaspora formed resilient communities whose cultural and economic contributions endure in South Africa today.
1687 Huguenots France Cape of Good Hope
1757day.year

Empress Elizabeth I of Russia issues her ukase incorporating Königsberg into Russia.

Empress Elizabeth of Russia decrees the annexation of the Prussian city of Königsberg into the Russian Empire during the Seven Years' War.
On December 31, 1757, Empress Elizabeth I issued a formal ukase incorporating the strategic Baltic port of Königsberg into the Russian Empire. This decree reflected Russia’s ambitions to expand its influence over East Prussia amid the turmoil of the Seven Years' War. The ukase asserted Russian legal control over the city’s administration, trade, and military defenses. Prussian forces under Frederick the Great contested this claim, leading to fierce military engagement in the region. Although Russia ultimately withdrew and Königsberg reverted to Prussian rule in 1762, the event underscored the shifting geopolitical landscape of 18th-century Europe. The brief annexation highlighted the interplay of military power and diplomatic edicts in territorial disputes.
1757 Elizabeth I of Russia ukase Königsberg into Russia