December 31

Events - Wars & Conflicts

406day.year

Vandals, Alans and Suebians cross the Rhine, beginning an invasion of Gaul.

In 406 AD, the Vandals, Alans, and Suebians crossed the frozen Rhine into Roman Gaul, launching a major invasion.
In December 406 AD, a coalition of Vandals, Alans, and Suebians forded the Rhine River near what is now Cologne, taking advantage of winter conditions. This mass migration marked one of the largest barbarian incursions into Roman Gaul and exposed the weakening defenses of the Western Roman Empire. The invaders pillaged towns and agricultural estates, causing widespread disruption and displacement among the Gallo-Roman population. Roman military forces, already stretched thin along multiple frontiers, failed to mount an effective counterattack. This crossing is often cited as a pivotal event in the decline of Roman authority in Western Europe.
406 Vandals Alans Suebians cross the Rhine Gaul
535day.year

Byzantine general Belisarius completes the conquest of Sicily, defeating the Gothic garrison of Palermo (Panormos), and ending his consulship for the year.

By 535 AD, Byzantine general Belisarius captured Palermo, completing the conquest of Sicily for the Eastern Roman Empire.
In 535 AD, Emperor Justinian I dispatched General Belisarius to reclaim Sicily from the Ostrogoths. After a swift campaign, Belisarius laid siege to Palermo, leading to the Gothic garrison’s surrender. The fall of Palermo secured Byzantine control over the island and served as a turning point in the Gothic War. Belisarius ended his consulship that year in recognition of his military success and returned to Constantinople. This conquest reinforced Byzantine influence in the western Mediterranean and showcased Belisarius’s tactical prowess.
535 Byzantine Belisarius Sicily Gothic Palermo consulship
870day.year

Battle of Englefield: The Vikings clash with ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire. The invaders are driven back to Reading (East Anglia); many Danes are killed.

Battle of Englefield in 870 saw Anglo-Saxon forces under Æthelwulf repel Viking raiders near Reading, delivering a significant early victory.
Amid escalating Viking raids across Wessex in 870, ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire led local militia to intercept the invaders at Englefield. The Anglo-Saxons achieved a decisive victory, driving the Vikings back toward Reading and inflicting heavy casualties. This encounter boosted morale among the Saxons during a period of relentless Norse incursions. Contemporary sources record the battle as an early success that temporarily stemmed the Viking advance into East Anglia. Although subsequent engagements followed, Englefield remains notable as one of the first recorded Saxon triumphs against the Norsemen.
870 Battle of Englefield Vikings ealdorman Æthelwulf of Berkshire Reading East Anglia Danes
1229day.year

James I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, enters Medina Mayurqa (now known as Palma de Mallorca, Spain), thus consummating the Christian reconquest of the island of Mallorca.

In 1229, King James I of Aragon captured Palma de Mallorca, completing the Christian reconquest of the Balearic island.
Part of the wider Reconquista, James I launched an expedition to seize the strategic island of Majorca from Muslim rule. On December 31, 1229, his forces entered Medina Mayurqa (modern Palma de Mallorca) after a protracted siege. The capitulation of the Muslim inhabitants established Aragonese sovereignty over the island. This conquest enhanced Aragon’s maritime power in the western Mediterranean and opened new trade opportunities. Majorca’s incorporation into the Crown of Aragon had long-lasting cultural and political ramifications for the region.
1229 James I the Conqueror King of Aragon Palma de Mallorca Christian reconquest Mallorca
1501day.year

The First Battle of Cannanore commences, seeing the first use of the naval line of battle.

The First Battle of Cannanore in 1501 introduced the naval line of battle tactic in combat at sea.
Engaged off the coast of Cannanore (present-day Kannur, India), Portuguese ships confronted local naval forces. This battle marked the first recorded use of the naval line of battle, where vessels formed a linear formation to concentrate broadsides. The innovation improved firing efficiency and command control during engagements. The Portuguese victory cemented their maritime dominance in the Indian Ocean and influenced naval tactics for centuries. Historians regard Cannanore 1501 as a milestone in the evolution of naval warfare.
1501 First Battle of Cannanore line of battle
1775day.year

American Revolutionary War: Battle of Quebec: British forces under General Guy Carleton repulse an attack by Continental Army General Richard Montgomery in a snowstorm.

In a dramatic snowstorm, British troops under General Guy Carleton repel an assault led by General Richard Montgomery during the Battle of Quebec in 1775.
On December 31, 1775, the Battle of Quebec marked a critical moment in the American Revolutionary War as Continental Army forces attempted to seize Canada. Brigadier General Guy Carleton organized a determined defense of the city’s fortifications against an attack led by General Richard Montgomery. Heavy snowfall hampered the coordination of American forces, while British troops held their positions with disciplined musket fire. General Montgomery was killed during the assault, dealing a severe blow to the rebel cause. The failed siege dashed hopes of rallying Canadian support for the revolution. The battle underscored the challenges of winter warfare and solidified British control over Quebec.
1775 American Revolutionary War Battle of Quebec Guy Carleton Continental Army Richard Montgomery
1862day.year

American Civil War: The three-day Battle of Stones River begins near Murfreesboro, Tennessee between the Confederate Army of Tennessee under General Braxton Bragg and the Union Army of the Cumberland under General William S. Rosecrans.

The Battle of Stones River begins near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, marking a fierce three-day clash during the American Civil War.
On December 31, 1862, Confederate General Braxton Bragg’s Army of Tennessee engaged Union troops under General William S. Rosecrans near Murfreesboro, Tennessee. This three-day battle tested the strategic skills and resilience of both sides. Heavy fighting on open fields and dense woods led to significant casualties for each army. Control of central Tennessee was at stake as both commanders maneuvered for advantage. The intense combat and close engagements made Stones River one of the bloodiest battles in the Civil War. Despite heavy losses, the Union army maintained its positions and claimed a strategic victory. The outcome bolstered Northern morale and helped secure supply lines for future campaigns in the Western Theater.
1862 American Civil War Battle of Stones River Murfreesboro, Tennessee Confederate Army of Tennessee Braxton Bragg Union Army of the Cumberland William S. Rosecrans
1942day.year

USS Essex, first aircraft carrier of a 24-ship class, is commissioned.

USS Essex, the first of the powerful Essex-class aircraft carriers, is commissioned into the United States Navy during World War II.
On December 31, 1942, the United States Navy commissioned USS Essex (CV-9), the lead ship of a new 24-vessel Essex-class of aircraft carriers. Designed for greater speed, armor, and aircraft capacity, the Essex-class represented a major evolution in naval warfare. USS Essex would become a workhorse of the Pacific Theater, launching hundreds of air sorties against Japanese-held targets. Its deployment supported key amphibious operations and fleet engagements, helping to secure Allied advances across the Pacific. The carrier’s innovative design influenced post-war carrier construction and naval strategy. USS Essex’s commissioning symbolized American industrial power and naval dominance in World War II. Over the course of her service, Essex earned numerous battle stars and solidified the aircraft carrier’s role as the centerpiece of modern naval fleets.
1942 USS Essex commissioned.
1942day.year

World War II: The Royal Navy defeats the Kriegsmarine at the Battle of the Barents Sea. This leads to the resignation of Grand Admiral Erich Raeder a month later.

The Royal Navy defeats the German Kriegsmarine at the Battle of the Barents Sea, leading to Grand Admiral Erich Raeder’s resignation shortly after.
On December 31, 1942, British escort ships defending Convoy JW 51B intercepted a German surface force in the Barents Sea. Despite being outgunned, the Royal Navy’s escorts protected the convoy and repelled the attack. The engagement confused German warship commanders and demonstrated the effectiveness of Allied convoy tactics. German losses and the failure to destroy the convoy infuriated Adolf Hitler, who questioned the value of his surface fleet. In January 1943, Hitler forced Grand Admiral Erich Raeder to resign, reshaping the command of the Kriegsmarine. The battle underscored the strategic importance of Arctic convoys in supplying the Soviet Union. Allied morale received a boost from this hard-fought victory in harsh northern waters.
World War II Royal Navy Kriegsmarine Battle of the Barents Sea Grand Admiral Erich Raeder
1944day.year

World War II: Operation Nordwind, the last major Wehrmacht offensive on the Western Front, begins.

Operation Nordwind, the last major German offensive on the Western Front in World War II, begins in the Alsace and Lorraine regions.
On December 31, 1944, German Army Groups G and Upper Rhine launched Operation Nordwind against American and French forces in Alsace and Lorraine. The offensive aimed to divert Allied troops from the Ardennes and regain strategic initiative during the harsh winter. Fierce fighting broke out in forests and villages under freezing conditions, testing soldiers’ endurance. Despite initial gains, German units encountered strong resistance and logistical challenges. The Allies eventually stabilized their lines and forced the Germans to withdraw by late January 1945. Nordwind’s failure further depleted German reserves and marked the final large-scale Wehrmacht initiative in the West. The operation illustrated the dwindling capacity of Germany’s war effort as Allied forces closed in from all sides.
1944 Operation Nordwind Wehrmacht Western Front
1946day.year

President Harry S. Truman officially proclaims the end of hostilities in World War II.

President Harry S. Truman officially proclaims the end of World War II hostilities, formally closing the chapter on global conflict.
On December 31, 1946, President Harry S. Truman issued a proclamation declaring that war between the United States and the central Axis powers had officially ended. He terminated wartime controls and regulations that had governed civilian and military affairs. The proclamation restored peacetime legal status to citizens and clarified the suspension of martial measures. It symbolized two years of postwar reconstruction and the transition to normal diplomatic relations. Although formal peace treaties would follow later, this declaration marked the final end of hostilities for America. The announcement allowed for the repatriation of remaining troops and the reallocation of resources to civilian industries. Truman’s proclamation represented both a legal milestone and a reassurance to the public that peace had been firmly reestablished.
1946 Harry S. Truman end of hostilities
1994day.year

The First Chechen War: The Russian Ground Forces begin a New Year's storming of Grozny.

Russian forces launch a major assault on Grozny during the First Chechen War on December 31, 1994, in an operation known as the New Year's storming.
In the early hours of December 31, 1994, Russian Ground Forces commenced a large-scale offensive on Grozny, the Chechen capital. Dubbed the New Year’s storming, the assault involved heavy artillery and armored units converging on the city’s defenses. Chechen fighters offered fierce resistance amid urban warfare in what became one of the conflict's bloodiest battles. The offensive aimed to swiftly quell Chechen separatists who had declared independence following the Soviet collapse. Civilian areas suffered extensive damage, and humanitarian concerns mounted as the siege continued into the winter. The brutal combat in Grozny set the tone for a protracted and devastating war that lasted until 1996.
First Chechen War Russian Ground Forces New Year's storming Grozny